Sama Veda

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1. Sama Veda samhita
1.1. Sama Veda is linked to music through yajna. It was customary to invoke and invite deities by singing their hymns; and to recite the mantras while the rituals were being performed. Those who sang were designated: Udgatru .They selected those riks (mantras) from Rig Veda that could be sung.  And, they compiled such selection into a collection; and that collection came to be known as Sama Veda Samhita.  Out of the 1,549 mantras in Sama Veda, as many as 1,474 mantras are taken from Rig Veda. It is explained, SA stands for rik, while AMA stands for various notes (Brihad Up: 1-3-22). Sama Veda is thus, virtually, a musical rendering of the selected mantras from Rig Veda. In other words, Sama took maathu (words) from Rig Veda; and provided dhathu the musical substance to those words.
1.2. The Sama Veda Samhita has two segments. The first segment is called Sama – Yoni (adhara) mantra Samhita, meaning that it is the basic text. This segment contains the selected mantras as they appear in the Rig Veda .This, virtually, is the source book. The second segment called Sama –gana text, details how the selected mantras are to be sung. This is the text for singing; expanding each mantra of the first segment with notations. This is the Sama Veda as it is generally understood and sung.
2. Sama-gana
2. 1.  As regards the styles of singing, Patanjali says that there were a thousand ways of singing of Sama “sahasravartma samvedah“. That might be just a poetic way of saying there were many styles of singing Sama. Of these, only three recensions Viz. Kauthumiya, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya have survived. The Kauthumiya and Ranayaniya carry the same set of mantras; but they are grouped differently and there are variations in svaras (accent) too. The Jaiminiya is said to be different from the other two, in both the aspects.
2.2. Udgathrus , the singers at the yajna , for whose guidance the Sama Veda came to be compiled , are usually a group of three singers; and the group together renderers the mantras in five stages:
Prasthava: The initial portion of the mantra is sung by an Udgathru designated Prasthothru. He starts with Huuum sound (Hoon Kara).
Udgita: He is followed by the chef Ritwik (designated the chief Udgathru) who sings his portion of the rik. He commences with an Om Kara.
Prathihara: the mid-portion is sung loudly by Prathiharthra.
Upadrava: The chief Udgathru sings again; and
Nidhana: the final portion is sung by all the three together.
When a mantra, as per the above format, is sung three times, it is then a stoma.
3. Elements of chanting3.1. The shiksha branch of Veda deals with elements of chanting and phonetics. According to Taittereya Upanishad (1. 2) , the elements of chanting includes six factors : Varna (syllable);svara(accent);maatra(duration);balam(time-duration);sama(even tone ) ; and Santana (continuity).The first four deal with correct pronunciation of individual syllables; and the last two with the pronunciation of the entire line or the verse.
3.2. Briefly, Varna is the correct pronunciation of every isolated syllable, combination of consonants and ovals and compound letters. Svara is how a syllable has to be pronounced in one of the three accents (udatta, anudatta and svarita).Maatra is the time duration for pronouncing a syllable. There are four types: hrasva- a short one-duration for short ovals; dhirga- two unit-duration for long vowels; plutam- longer than two –unit duration; and, the fourth is ardha- maatra, half unit, meant for consonants not accompanied by vowels.
4. Sama music
4.1. The music, based on Sama mantras was classified into:
(i). Grama_geya gana: was sung amidst people of the society. It was a natural way of singing.
(ii).Aranya gana: Sung in contemplation, in the woods and groves. This was also a natural singing.
(iii).Uhaa gana: Sung during the Soma yajna. The singing here followed a rather complicated pattern. And,
(iv).Uhya gana: secrect or singing within oneself.
4.2. In the beginning, Sama-gana employed only three notes called Udatta, Anudatta and Svarita. The lyre (Vana-Veena) accompanying the singing had only three strings, one for each note.The songs were perhaps like Ga Ga -Re Re -Sa Sa Sa. This kind of singing might have suited for chanting hymns.
The three notes were differentiated depending on whether it was produced mfrom above or below the palate (taalu).
Udatta refers to sound produced from above the palate; and is acutely accented (uchchaih) .
Anudatta was gravely accented (nichaih); produced from below the palate.
Svarita is a combination of udatta and anudatta, with udatta in the first-half. It is called a circumflexed accent.
In the written/printed texts of the Rig Veda, Udatta is not indicated by any symbol; Anudatta is indicated by underlining the syllable; and Svarita is indicated by a vertical line above the syllable.
The Sama –gana texts, however, indicate udatta by writing the Sanskrit numeral –one above the letter; anudatta by writing the numeral –three above the letter; and svarita by writing the numeral –two above the letter. In sama text , the syllables that have  no  symbols are called prachaya.Please see the following example;

5. Sama svaras
5.1 .But, the scale, gradually, over a period of time, expanded from three to seven notes Narada Shikshaexplaining the Sama music states: there were: seven notes (svaras); three gramas; 21 moorchanas; and 49 taanas in Sama music. It also gives the relation between the Sama notes (Sama svara) and notes on the flute (Venu svara)
Sama svara
Venu svara
01
Prathama
Madhyama
Ma
02
Dwithiya
Gandhara
Ga
03
Trithiya
Rishabha
Ri
04
Chathurtha
Shadja
Sa
05
Panchama
Nishadha
Ni
06
Shasta
Daiwatha
Dha
07
Sapthama
Panchama
Pa
In the later Sama texts, it became customary to write the numerals (one to seven) on top of the Sama mantras to indicate their note- delineations (Sama vikara).

5.2. Naradiya Shiksha (1.5.3; 1.5.4) explains that each sama-svara was derived from the sounds made by a bird or an animal in its appropriate season. For instance, bulls roar was Rishabha; kraunchaka’s (heron) cry was Madhyama; elephant’s trumpet was Nishadha; and koel’s (cuckoo) melodious whistle was Panchama and so on. Please see the table below.
Name in Sama
Music
Symbol
Sama Veda
Svara
Bird/animal
Sound associated
Madhyama
Ma
svarita
heron
Gandhara
Ga
udatta
goat
Rishabha
Ri
anudatta
bull
Shadja
Sa
svarita
peacock
Nishadha
Ni
udatta
elephant
Daiwatha
Dha
anudatta
horse
Panchama
Pa
svarita
koel
5.3. The Sama notes were of Nidhana prakriti (diminishing nature) and followed a descending order.
The order of the svaras in Sama-music was: Ma, Ga, Ri, Sa, Ni, Dha, and Pa. The order of the svaras was revised in the later texts to: Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni ; as we are familiar with it today.
Dr. Lalmani Misra, a noted scholar, explained the Vedic priests used a single or two notes. The Sama singers improved on that and used at least three notes. ” The singers explored further and discovered more notes. M G R S D has been determined to be the basic set of notes used in this order by Sāmik singers” he said, “Sāmik notes were exactly those followed in Shadja grāmik tradition.”Dr. Misra also said that ancient musical scale using notes in descending order can be translated into modern Shadja grām by considering the Madhyam  to be Shadja and movingup the scale.
6. Muscial instrumentsWe may make a brief mention about the musical instruments mentioned in Rig Veda, before we go further.  The following musical instruments find reference in the Rig Veda. These instruments later developed into vana (lyre), veena, Venu or vamsha (flute) and mridanga (drums).
Karkari (RV 2.43.3) and Tunabha were veena –like string instruments. In fact, all string instruments were called veena.
Vana (RV 1.85.10; 6.24.9 etc.) was a lyre; a plucked string instrument like a harp. Rig Veda (10.32.4) mentions the seven tones (varas0 of the vana (vanasya saptha dhaturit janah).
Naali (RV 10.135.7) was a wind instrument similar to flute.
Dundhubhi (RV 1.28.51; 6.47.29 etc.) was a drum to keep betas and rhythm.
Adambarara was also a drum made from udambara tree.Shanka vadya blowing of counch is also mentioned.
Musical instruments were basically used as accompaniments to singing and dancing. There are no references to playing them solo.
7. Development of Sama music7.1. As sama-gana originated from the yajna, its purpose, at least in the initial stages, was limited to chanting by the udgathrus. Later, as they explored and discovered more music, the number of notes increased from three to four, then five (which continued for a very long time), then six and finally seven. With that, the number of strings of the lyre too increased.
7.2. Even then, since the Sama notes were in a descending order there was not much flexibility in music. Dr. Mishra remarks “In those times there were no microphones or loudspeakers. Sam was sung in large, wide, open or canopied spaces, with the intention that all present should be able to hear it. In such a condition if the song has notes M G R S D ( as in Sama) it would be audible at best in a single room, but if the notes, S N D P G starting from Tār-saptak are sung they would be loud enough for all to hear. So, from this angle of usage too, S N D P G seems more appropriate than M G R S D. “Further since the  raga concept was, then, yet to be evolved, there might not have been much depth and variation in the rendering of Vedic or Sama music.
As Dr. N.Ramanathan, a noted musicologist remarked, Sama music was to acquire the rhythmic-time- patterns. That is, the taala system was also yet to evolve.
The Sama music, in its later stages, was just ripe; and it was also eager to grow and expand both in scope and content.
7.3. It was during the Gupta period that Indian music started gaining the form which we now call Classical. As a result of the disciplines evolved over the ages, a well structured system of music could be  erected on the foundations of the Sama -gana .From that, a typical way of singing (Marga) emerged .No matter who sang and in which region it was sung, the Sama and the Marga  music had to follow the traditional approved format. The roots of Sangita, the traditional (classic) Indian Music were thus firmly founded in Sama- gana. 7.4. The folk music (Desi) on the other hand, sprang from the common people and varied from region to region. It was inspired from life , spontaneous and fluid. The two systems developed independently.
It is only of late the Marga and Desi; the classical and folk music are coming together, enriching and inspiring each other. It is wonderfully delightful development.
8. Music and spiritual progress8.1. Music in the Vedic times was sung and played for entertainment. Its other main use was during the performance of the yajna; and it was here that sama-gana was born. However, the concept that music would lead to spiritual development did not seem to have existed then.

8.2. It was only in the later texts, say of 4th to 6th century AD, such as Brihaddeshi, Vayupurana and Narada shiksha assigned the musical taanas, names of the various Yajnas; and said that the benefits of those yajnas could be obtained by singing the relativetaanas. The Yajnavalkhya shiksha said, the music would help spiritual practices. The idea that music was a way to liberation (moksha sadhana) seems to have emerged at a later stage, perhaps during the Bhakthi period (10th -11th century and onwards).
While on the subject of swaras, let me append here the wonderful explanation of the swaras in Indian music offered by Shri S Rajam the renowned artist and musician. He says:  The Seven swaras have twelve swara divisions:
Carnatic System
Syllable
Hindustani System
Western
Shadja
SA
Shadj
C
Suddha Ri
R1
Komal Rishab
D Flat Db
Chatusruti Ri
R2
Thivra Rishab
D
Sadarana GA
G1
Komal GA
E Flat Eb
Antara GA
G2
Thivra GA
E
Suddha MA
M1
Komal MA
F
Prati MA
M2
Thivra MA
F Sharp F+
Panchama
PA
Pancham
G
Suddha Da
D1
Komal Da
A Flat Ab
Chatusruti Da
D2
Thivra Da
A
Kaisiki NI
N1
Komal NI
B Flat Bb
KakaliNI
N2
Thivra NI
B
SA & PA are constant. Others have two levels (sthanas). Thus there exist twelve swara sthanas. Four more having shades of other swaras – Suddha Gandharam, Shatsruti Rishaba, and Suddha Nishada & Shatsruti Dhaivata – make up a total of sixteen.
72 Sampoorna Ragas having all seven swaras both in ascending (arohana) & descending (avarohana) emerge as Mela ragas. Each mela has all the seven swaras but drafts varying swarasthana formulations.
Each mela raga applied to permutations & combinations of swara sthanas gives scope to 484 janya (sub) ragas. 72 mela ragas have thus a potential to give the colossal 34776 janya ragas. Of course, this is only an arithmetical projection & not a melodic feasibility.
Of 72 melas, the first 36 have M1 & the second 36 have M2.